The end of the Roman Republic was a turbulent time. In 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated, and Octavian was named his heir in his will. At the age of 19, Octavian, who was in the Apollonian army in Greece, learned about it and immediately marched back to Rome. At this time, Rome was in the hands of Brutus and Cassius, the republican senators who murdered Caesar. Octavian managed to form an alliance with Caesar's colleagues Marc Antony and Lepidus, known in history as the latter three. The three began to clean up the heresy in the Senate, and more than a hundred elders and thousands of knights were killed. Antony and Octavian led an army to pursue Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to the east. Brutus and Cassius committed suicide in the battle of Philippi in 42 BC.
Antony went to Egypt to form an alliance with Caesar's lover, Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII (Cleopatra). So far, Rome belonged to Octavian in the west and Antony to the east.
Antony focused on the Parthian wars in the East, and always maintained a close relationship with the Queen of Egypt. Octavian built up people's hearts in Rome to consolidate his power, and at the same time slandered Antony, saying that he rebelled against Rome, and the contradiction between the two sides became increasingly fierce. Finally, in the first 32 years, Octavian declared war on Antony. In September 31 BC, the combined forces of Antony and the Queen of Egypt fought Octavian at Cape Actium in Greece, known as the Battle of Actium in history. As a result, Antony was defeated and fled back to Egypt with the queen. In the first 30 years, Octavian invaded Egypt, Anthony and the queen committed suicide one after another, Caesarion, the illegitimate son of the queen and Caesar, was executed, and the Ptolemaic dynasty perished. So far, Egypt became a province of Rome.
In the first 27 years, Octavian cleverly used his political skills to declare that he would abolish all power and restore the republic. (that is, the head of state, from which the head of the state system comes), the highest consul, the life-long consul, the life-long tribune, the high priest, etc., claiming to be the "first citizen", the supreme commander (or translated as "victory general", "grand marshal") ), and received the titles of "Augustus" (meaning "Holy") and "Father of the Fatherland" by the Senate. This wonderful performance by Octavian announced the founding of the Roman Empire.
Early Roman Empire
Octavian - During Octavian's reign, he reformed the military, reduced armaments, and established the empire's first standing army and guards. Set up a cabinet to assist the emperor in government affairs. Established the "Inland Revenue Service" to oversee fiscal power. Reorganize the administrative division, and divide the province of the Senate and the province of the emperor, in order to establish the emperor's highest military power. Octavian established friendly relations with Parthia and Armenia diplomatically.
19 years ago, conquered all of Spain. From the first 16 years, troops were sent to the east of the Alps and the upper Danube, and two provinces of Rhaetian and Norris were set up, and then they sent troops to the middle and lower reaches of the Danube, and two provinces of Pannonia and Misia were set up. In the first 12 to 5 years, the land between the Rhine and the Elbe was gradually conquered, but the newly conquered land continued to be rioted. In 9 years, general Varus was ambushed and annihilated in the battle of the Teutoburg Forest to suppress the German uprising. Octavian had to give up the land between the Rhine and the Elbe. Since then, the expansion of the Roman Empire to West Germany stopped, and Octavian did not carry out any major conquests. The following hundred years were a long period of stability, called the "Roman Peace" period.
Tiberius - In 14 years, Octavian died and succeeded his adopted son Tiberius. In order to strengthen the imperial power, Tiberius abolished the legislative and electoral rights of the Citizens Assembly and concentrated the guards in Rome to defend the emperor. Tiberius had a ruthless and strict personality, and he acted arbitrarily in the later period of his reign. He repeatedly sanctioned the words and deeds of opposing or criticizing the emperor, requiring the Senate to only express the same opinion as him, and the relationship between the Senate and the family was tense. He retired to Capri in 26 and ruled Rome there for nearly ten years. In 37, Tiberius died of a disease in Capri.
Caligula - After the death of Tiberius, the Guards made Caligula emperor, the first time in Roman history that an army had established an emperor. In the early days of his reign, Caligula was generous and generous and was universally loved by the people. In the later period, he suddenly suffered from mental illness, ignored state affairs, indulged in entertainment activities, and was moody, brutal, and murderous. He often executed members of the Senate and nobles and confiscated their property. For 40 years, he spoke in Rome advocating personal dictatorship and deifying emperors. In 41, Caligula was killed by the Guards.
Claudius - After Caligula's death, the Guards installed his elderly uncle Claudius on the throne. During the reign of Claudius, he reformed government agencies and established a bureaucratic system: there were three central departments, namely the Secretariat (in charge of internal affairs, military affairs, and foreign affairs), the Finance Department (in charge of finance) and the Judicial Department (in charge of law). . Raised knighthood and granted Roman citizenship to provincial residents. As a result, provincial nobles could also serve as senior officials or enter the Senate. In terms of external expansion, it has newly conquered southern Britain and Mauritania. Claudius also built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber and a massive water pipeline. In 54, Claudius was probably poisoned by Empress Agrippina the Younger.
Nero
Nero - After the death of Claudius, his adopted son Nero came to the throne. During Nero's reign, he formulated a number of policies that benefited the common people. Appointed the famous general Kolbro to successfully resolve the Parthian and Armenian crises. But at the same time, he is also a famous tyrant in Roman history, cruel and tyrannical, killing his mother and killing his wife. He is passionate about art and calls himself a "great artist". In 1964, a fire broke out in Rome and almost the entire city was destroyed. After the fire, Nero began to build a new palace, called the "Golden Palace". Rumors circulated in Rome that Nero set fire to building the new palace. In order to eliminate rumors, Nero used Christians as scapegoats to hunt and kill (St. Peter, one of Jesus' twelve disciples, died in this event). [4] In 1966, the Jewish War broke out in Palestine. At this time, Nero went to Greece for a long artistic tour. Due to Nero's failure, uprisings against Nero broke out everywhere. In March 1968, Vindix, the governor of Gaul, and Galba, the governor of Spain, rebelled. In May, Windex was defeated and killed. At this time, the Senate declared Nero an enemy of the state, and Nero committed suicide on the way to escape.
Galba, Vitellius, Otto, Vespasian - after Nero's death, the senate recognized Galba as emperor. Due to Garba's old age and frailty, he was unable to control the situation. In January 69, Vitellius, the governor of Lower Germany, proclaimed himself emperor, while Galba was killed by his subordinate Otto, who established himself as emperor. In March, Vitellius sent troops to compete with Otto for the throne, but Otto committed suicide. In July, Wei Paxian, the general who was quelling the Jewish rebellion, was proclaimed emperor by the army in many places. In October, Vespasian defeated Vitellius, ending the battle for the throne.
Roman Empire Flavian Dynasty
Wei Paxiang - In December 1969, Wei Paxiang became emperor.
Vesuvius and Pompeii
After Wei Paxian became emperor, the empire faced a crisis, and he first suppressed uprisings in various places. In 70 years, he successfully suppressed the Badawi rebellion. In the same year, his son Titus led his troops to capture Jerusalem, massacred a large number of Jews, and burned the Jewish temple, ending the Jewish War. In order to make up for the financial problems caused by the civil war, Wei Paxiang strengthened tax management and increased provincial taxes to rectify military and internal affairs. During his reign, the province's position was greatly strengthened. In 1973, he added provincial nobles to the Senate, and granted many provincial nobles Roman citizenship, allowing them to participate in politics widely.
Titus - In 1979, Vespasian died and was succeeded by his son Titus. Titus is politically moderate. In his first year in office, Mount Vesuvius erupted, burying Pompeii; after that, fires and plagues broke out in Rome. Titus was running around, exhausted by disaster relief work.
Domitian - In 1981, Titus died and his younger brother Domitian came to the throne. Rumor has it that Titus was poisoned by Domitian. Domitian was autocratic and dictatorial, pretending to be "the Lord and God", and despised the Senate. Domitian reformed his cabinet, further attracting the knights to politics. In terms of external expansion, he achieved success in South Germany, building the Germanic Wall, which connected the Rhine and the upper Danube. But after losing twice in the war against Dacia, they finally made peace with gifts. In 1989, Domitian, under the pretext of supporting the rebellion, executed a large number of senators and dignitaries, causing panic among the people. Domitian died in a palace coup in 1996.
Roman Empire Antonine Dynasty
Nerva - After Domitian's death, the Senate elected the old and childless former consul, Nerva, as emperor. Nerva treated the elders with respect and kindness, and the authority of the Senate was restored to a certain extent. But he was quite unpopular with the army and military commanders. In order to win the support of the army,
Trajan
In the second year of his ascension, Nerva chose Trajan, the German governor with outstanding military exploits, as his adopted son, successfully quelling the dissatisfaction of the army.
Trajan - In 1998, Nerva died, and Trajan ascended the throne, he was the first emperor from the provincial nobles. Trajan continued to implement Nerva's policy of being kind to the elders, vigorously built public facilities, and actively expanded externally. During Trajan's reign, the Roman Empire reached its largest territory. In 101 Trajan led his troops to invade Dacia, and in 106 it was completely conquered, and the province of Dacia was established. Trajan held a grand triumphal ceremony, announced the festival of 123 days, and built the ancient Roman Trajan Column. In 105, Trajan occupied northern Arabia and established the Arabian province. In 114, Trajan annexed Armenia and established the Armenian province. After that, Trajan continued eastward, defeated the Parthian army, and occupied the Parthian capital Tesifon in 116. At the end of the year, Trajan's troops arrived in the Persian Gulf, and he was the only Roman commander who had ever reached here. In 117, Trajan became seriously ill and withdrew his army, setting up two provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia. On his deathbed, Hadrian was announced as his adopted son.
Hadrian
Hadrian - After Trajan's death, Hadrian ascended to the throne. Hadrian switched from attack to defense, abandoning the lands that Trajan had conquered in the east. During Hadrian's reign, he toured many times, and his footprints covered almost the entire empire. During this period, he built the "Hadrian's Wall" that traverses the east and west of the northern part of the British Island to defend against the barbarian invasion of Scotland; unified the recruitment standards, strengthened the quality of the army, and established a temporary army system. Hadrian transitioned the Führer system to an absolute monarchy, with the emperor's will as the supreme law, ordered jurists to compile the "Permanent Edict" as the legal basis of the empire; vigorously strengthened the knighthood, and made it a specific bureaucratic class; continued And strengthened the Romanization of the province, narrowing the distance between the provincial city and Rome; he also rebuilt the famous Pantheon in Rome. In 131, Hadrian banned Jews from circumcision, the Sabbath, and the reading of the Jewish law, which triggered a Jewish uprising. The Roman army took two years to massacre 580,000 Jews to suppress the uprising. Hadrian forbade Jews to live in Jerusalem, and a large number of Jews have never settled there. Hadrian attached great importance to the issue of heirs. He chose 52-year-old MP Antoine Pius as his adopted son and asked him to adopt 18-year-old MPs Marcus Aurelius and 7-year-old Lucius Viru Si is an adopted son.
Anthony Pius - Hadrian died in 138 and was succeeded by his adopted son, Antony Pius. During the reign of Antonine Pius, he closed the border to the outside world, and he was generally fine; he cared about the internal affairs of the government, loved the people, had a good relationship with the Senate, and had a lot of revenue from the treasury. Rome enjoyed more than 20 years of peace and prosperity.
Two emperors ruled together - for 161 years, Anthony Pius died, and the throne
Anthony Asylum
Inherited by two adopted sons, Verus and Marcus Aurelius, it was the first time in Roman history that two emperors ruled together. Marcus Aurelius, the famous "Emperor Philosopher", was the main expounder of Stoic philosophy and author of Meditations, while Verus was more mediocre.
When the two ascended the throne, the situation on the borders of the empire was dire, with Parthians invading Armenia in 162, Verus fighting off the Parthians for four years, and annexing Mesopotamia between 164 and 165. In 167, the Germans invaded again, and the two emperors had to lead an army to conquer. Due to financial constraints, the emperor sold the crown jewels to raise army salaries. In 169, Verus died and the empire was restored to the status of an emperor. Marcus Aurelius relieved the Germans from pressure on the empire and allowed them to settle on the borders of the empire, laying the groundwork for future barbarian invasions. In 175, general Arvidius Cassius launched a rebellion in the eastern part of the empire. After the rebellion was quelled, Marcus Aurelius launched a war against the Germans, trying to annex Bohemia. In 180, when he was about to succeed, Marcus Aurelius died of illness in the army.
Marcus Aurelius was a relatively great emperor. During his reign, he was diligent in government and love the people, actively handled government affairs, and guarded the borders of the empire. However, he mistakenly appointed his son Commodus as the heir to the throne and encouraged him to handle political affairs with him, laying the groundwork for the crisis of the third century. After his death, the Roman Empire gradually began to decline.
Roman Empire Crisis Begins
Commodus - After the death of Marcus Aurelius, his son Commodus succeeded him. In the early days of his reign, Commodus dared not
Commodity
Indulgence, and more respect for the elders who Marcus Aurelius appointed to assist him during his lifetime. In 182, his sister Ruchira and some elders tried to assassinate him. After the incident, he executed everyone who participated in the assassination and many innocent people. From then on, Commodus no longer trusted the elders and left all political affairs to the favored ministers and the commander of the Guard. In the later period, he was cruel and suspicious, and he loved sports such as circus and wrestling. Commodus's rule caused dissatisfaction among the people, and many people plotted to assassinate him, which also made him more eccentric and tyrannical. On New Year's Day 193, when Commodus announced that he was going to be the consul of the year in gladiator attire, his mistress drank him a glass of poisoned wine, and he was subsequently murdered by a wrestler sent by the commander of the Guards.
After the death of Commodus, the Guard established the city governor Petinax. Petinax actively quelled Commodus's negative impact on the Empire, but when he tried to clean up the military, he was immediately killed by the Guards.
Pantheon
After the death of Petinax, the Guards announced that the throne would be auctioned off, and the one who made the most bids could become the emperor. After competition among many people, Julianus bought the throne at a price that the Guards were satisfied with. But Julianus did not have a single follower, and the army treated him with disdain. The governor of Syria, Nigel, took the lead in proposing himself as emperor. Then, the governor of Pannonia, Severus, a North African, rebelled. He led his troops on a rapid march and quickly marched towards Rome. The moral of the guards was low and they were quickly defeated. The Senate instead declared Severus emperor. The Guards executed Julianus for Severus' forgiveness. After Severus entered Rome, he executed all the original guards on the charge of treason and formed a larger new guard with his own soldiers.
Roman Empire Severus Dynasty
Severus - After he became emperor, he immediately went to war with Nigel, who had already become emperor. In 194, Nigel was defeated at Issus. In 197, Severus defeated the rebellious British Governor Albanus in Lyon, ending the civil war in 193. Severus was a soldier, and he was accustomed to acting arbitrarily. He ignored the Senate and removed many of the elders from important positions, replacing them with knights without culture. Severus' rule was backed by the army. He expanded the Roman army to an unprecedented level, most of them were foreigners, and used all means to win over the army, paying the army high salaries and rewards. . Severus achieved no small success militarily, in addition to ending the civil war, he defeated Parthia in 197 and annexed Mesopotamia again. Severus raised imperial power to supremacy, and his jurists stated that "he is not bound by all laws, he is the master of any man, and the empire is his property". In 208, Severus sent troops to Britain without much progress. In 211, he died in York. On his deathbed, his last words to his two sons were: "May your brothers live in harmony and let the soldiers get rich, and leave the others alone."
Caracalla
Caracalla - After the death of Severus, two sons, Caracalla and Geta, ascended the throne at the same time. The following year, Caracalla killed Geta. Caracalla was again a tyrant, killing his younger brother and his comrades, as well as his wife, father-in-law, and many famous people. Caracalla continued to implement Severus' policy of preferential treatment of the army. In order to increase revenue and expand tax sources, Caracalla issued the Edict of Caracalla in 212, granting all free people in the empire Roman citizenship. In 217, Caracalla was killed by the Guards while on his expedition to Parthia.
Macrinus - After Caracalla was killed, the commander of the guard, Macrinus, proclaimed himself emperor, and his son Diadumenian was co-emperor. After Macrinus took the throne, he accepted extremely unfavorable terms, ended the war with Parthia, and cut military spending, causing dissatisfaction with the army. In 218, Severus' sister-in-law, Julia Misa, instigated a rebellion, and Macrinus and Diadumenian were both killed in Asia Minor.
Elagabalus and Alexander Severus - Misa made his thirteen-year-old grandson, Elagabalus, emperor. Elagabalus worshipped the gods of the East, was reckless, ignorant of state affairs, and had a very poor relationship with the Senate and the army. In 222, Misa acquiesced to the guards to kill him and made another 14-year-old grandson, Alexandre Severus, emperor. Relations with the Senate improved under Alexandre Severus. In 231, Alexander Severus went to the east to fight against the emerging empire of Sassanid Persia, the situation improved slightly, and rushed to the west to resist the Germans. In 235, the army rebelled and Alexandre Severus was killed.
Crisis of the Roman Empire
The emperor is on the lookout - after the death of Alexandre Severus, the army made Maximinus emperor. Maximinus was of humble origin and was despised, so he treated the senate and the people with brutality. In 238, the Senate secretly instructed the Guards to kill him. In the same year, the Senate introduced four emperors, all of whom were killed. Gordian III, who then ascended the throne, was only 13 years old and was a puppet of the Guards. In 244, the army supported the Arab Philip. During his reign, the 1000th anniversary of the founding of Rome was celebrated. In 249, the Arab Philip was killed by the rebel general Decius. Decius was again killed in a war with the Goths in 251, and a prolonged plague broke out during the reign of Gallus, who came to the throne, and Gallus died at the hands of soldiers in 253. Valerian and Gallienus, who came to the throne, led two large armies, one against the Persians in the east and the other against the Germans in the west, which was the first to divide the empire from east to west. In 259, the general of the Rhine region, Postumus, proclaimed himself emperor and established the Gallic Empire, including Gaul, Britain, and most of Spain. In 260, Valerian was captured while fighting the Persians, with unknown results. In 267, Palmyra in the east became independent, splitting off part of the eastern provinces.
At this time, the chaos of the Roman Empire reached its peak, and the central government was almost paralyzed. The emperor not only had to face external enemies but also suppressed the army and the people who revolted from time to time. In addition, the army continued to support new emperors, expecting more rewards, and if the rewards were not generous, the emperor would be killed. In 268, Gallienus reformed the military, relieved other duties of the military, established a new reserve army, stationed in Milan, and made Milan the military capital of the empire. The reformed army succeeded in defeating the Ostrogoths. In 269, the Bagua movement broke out in Gaul, where slaves and slave farmers revolted. The insurgents established themselves as emperors and minted coins, which lasted until 286.
Roman Empire Illyrian Emperors
Claudius II - After Gallienus reformed the military, he was killed by his subordinates less than a year later, and Claudius II ascended the throne. He defeated first the Alamanis, and later a mighty Gothic army, known as the "Gothic Conqueror". Claudius II died of the plague in 270 and Aurelian came to the throne.
Aurelian
Aurelian - He again battered the Goths in Pannonia, ending the Gothic invasion. Then he led an army to the east, defeated the Palmyra Empire, recovered Asia Minor and Syria, and then attacked the city of Palmyra, captured the Queen of Palmyra, Zenobia, and in 273 took the city of Palmyra. Razed to the ground. In the same year, Aurelian defeated the Gallic emperor Tetricus I and reincorporated Gaul, Britain, and Spain into the empire. Aurelian reunited the empire, hence the name "The Restorer of the World". In order to strengthen the defense, Aurelian built a new city wall 20 kilometers long and 6 meters high for Rome and gave up Dacia in order to use the natural danger of the Danube to defend.
Tacitus - In 275, Aurelian was killed in an expedition to Sassanid Persia, and the Senate established Claudius Tacitus as emperor. This was the last time the Senate elected an emperor.
Probus - Tacitus died a year later, and the army supported Probus. Probus smashed the Germanic invasion of Gaul in three separate ways and drove the Vandals out of the Balkans.
Marcus Aurelius Carus, Carinus, Diocletian - In 282, Probus was killed and Marcus Aurelius Carus ascended the throne. Carus defeated the Germans again in the north and attacked Persia, for a time capturing Tessiphon. In 283, Carus died violently and was succeeded by his son Carinus. In 284 Diocletian, the commander of the Guard, rebelled, defeated Carinus near Belgrade and became ruler of the empire.
Four Emperors of the Roman Empire
After Diocletian became emperor, he changed the head of state to a true monarchy. The monarch wears a crown and silk robes, and the subjects need to kneel and worship the monarch. Monarchs were worshipped as gods, such as Diocletian who called himself Jupiter incarnate. In 288, Diocletian successfully consolidated the Euphrates line and was awarded the title of "Conqueror of Persia" by the Senate. In the same year, he returned westward from Antioch, Syria, and headed to the Danube to assist Maximian, who was in Gaul, against bandits. In 290, the Gallic raids ended, and they went to Syria again to quell the Saracens' rebellion. In 291, repelled the natives who invaded the Empire from the upper Nile. In 292, he returned to the Danube and repelled the northern barbarian Sarmatians across the river. [5] In 293, Diocletian began to implement the "four emperors co-governance system",
Diocletian stipulated that the two Augustus (right emperors) in the east and west should each appoint a Caesar
Diocletian
(Deputy Emperor), Augustus must abdicate after 20 years on the throne, and the original two Caesars will succeed Augustus, and each will appoint a Caesar. The implementation of the co-governance of the four emperors is not to split the empire into four parts but to entrust the defense of the empire to four people. Diocletian's status is still the highest among the four.
Diocletian reduced the scale of the province, divided about 100 provinces, and established administrative regions. More than a dozen provinces were one administrative region, and local governors did not hold military posts. Diocletian reformed the military, dividing the army into frontier troops and patrol troops, the frontier troops were used to resist external invasions, and the patrol troops were used to suppress popular uprisings and rebellions and to fight large-scale foreign enemies. He also reduced the size of the legion and increased the number of legions for dispatch. Since Diocletian divided the empire into four quarters, each emperor had a large number of soldiers, which greatly increased the economic burden of the empire. Therefore, Diocletian implemented a new tax system, changed the currency system, adjusted prices, and promulgated the "Price Edict", but all were unsuccessful. In 297, Diocletian's co-ruler Galerius invaded Sassanid Persia, and in 298, occupied Tessiphon. Diocletian abdicated in 305 after 20 years on the throne, along with Maximian.
Constantius I, who ascended the throne as Augustus in the West, reigned only once
Four Emperors
After more than a year, he died in Britain, and his son Constantine I (that is, Constantine the Great) took the throne. When Constantine I ascended the throne, he only occupied Britain and Gaul, and the rest was under the control of Maximian's son Maxentius. In 312 he defeated Maxentius and unified the West.
In the East, after the death of Augustus Galerius in 311, Lycines, who came to the throne, defeated Diaia, who held Egypt and parts of Asia and unified the East. In 313, Constantine I and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, declaring Christianity legal. In 314, a conflict broke out between the two, and Licinius was defeated and asked for peace and was forced to give up all of Europe except Thrace. In 323, the two fought again, Licinius was defeated, and Constantine I became the sole ruler of the empire.
late empire
Constantine the Great—
Constantine the Great
When he ascended the throne, he was exhausted all over the empire. He adopted a method similar to that of Diocletian, appointing his three sons Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constance as Caesar, and each ruled. part of the empire. Constantine the Great ruled the Balkans and the Black Sea region, Constantine II ruled Spain, Gaul, and Britain, Constantius II ruled the East and Egypt, and Constantine ruled Italy and Africa. Emperor Constantine reformed the administrative divisions and divided the country into four major administrative regions, with the lower administrative regions and then the provinces. On the economic front, Diocletian's policies continued, stipulating occupational hereditary, fixing peasants to the land, and enacting laws reaffirming the status of slave owners. In terms of military affairs, he abolished the Guard and replaced it with the Palatine Cavalry Guard, and recruited a large number of barbarians into the army, which comprehensively improved the combat effectiveness of the Roman army. He used terror to force conscription, and those who refused to do so could be put to death. Religiously, he convened the Council of Nicaea in 325, which established many of the basic teachings of Christianity and denounced the Arians as heretics. His series of initiatives laid the foundation for the dominance of Christianity in Europe in the future.
Since 324, Constantine the Great has built a new capital, Constantinople, by the Bosphorus Strait, known as the New Rome. It was initially built in 330, and its special geographical environment and strategic position are important reasons for the East Roman Empire to survive for thousands of years. In 337, Constantine the Great fell seriously ill and was baptized before his death.
Immediately after the death of Constantine the Great, a melee for the throne broke out in the Roman Empire, and Constantine II, Constantine, and Magnentius were killed successively. In 353, Constantius II became the sole ruler of the empire. In 361, Constantius II's cousin Julian the apostate rebelled. Constantius II died while fighting Julian, and Julian took power. Julian was influenced by Neoplatonism, and after he came to power, he implemented an anti-Christian policy and vigorously supported polytheism. He aggressively attacked Christianity, many churches were burned and looted, Christians were expelled from the army and schools, and he himself wrote a book attacking Christianity. Economically, Julian succeeded in stopping inflation. Military, he defeated the Germans and invaded the Sassanid dynasty of Persia. In 363, Julian was killed, and Jovian, who ascended the throne, canceled Julian's anti-Christian policy.
· Valentinian Dynasty
In 364, Jovian died (possibly from food poisoning), and the Danube officer Valentinian I was made emperor by the army, who then gave the eastern part of the empire to his brother Valens. Valentinian I garrisoned Milan, Valens garrisoned Constantinople. In 376, Valentinian I died and Valentinian II came to the throne. In 378, Valens was killed in battle against the Goths at Hadrian'sburg, and the empire was subsequently ruled by Gratian and Theodosius I. In 383, Gratian died, and Theodosius I made peace with the Goths, allowing them to settle in the territory, join the army, and serve as officials. In 388 he defeated the western usurpers Magnus Maximus and Flavius Victor and his son. In 392, Valentinian II died (possibly by hanging) in his palace in Vienne, southeastern France.
· Theodosian Dynasty
The division of the Roman Empire (
In 393, Theodosius I proclaimed Christianity as the state religion, opposed all paganism and heresies, closed the temple of polytheism, and built a new Christian church. He believed that the ancient Olympic Games violated Christian teachings and were a pagan activity, so he announced the abolition of the ancient Olympic Games. In 394, Theodosius I became the sole ruler of the empire after defeating the usurper Eugenius in the west, and this was the last time the Roman Empire was unified. This year, the population under the Roman rule may have been around 56 million [8] . When Theodosius I died in Milan in 395, he divided the empire into two parts, the eastern part for the eldest son Arcadius and the western part for the youngest son Honorius.
The collapse of the Western Roman Empire
After the division of the Roman Empire, Alaric, the leader of the Visigoths, continued to invade the Roman Empire under the strong pressure of the Huns, a nomadic tribe in Northeast Asia. In the winter of 405, the combined army of Alaric and the Huns broke through the Rhine defense line of the Roman Empire, and Rome had no effective resistance, which effectively amounted to giving up most of Gaul. In 407, Constantine III, the general who was stationed in Britain, rebelled. The Western Roman Emperor Honorius tried to make Alaric attack Constantine III. Alaric asked for 4,000 pounds of gold as a price. S agreed. Subsequently, due to Honorius breaking his promise, Alaric and the Huns invaded Italy, and Honorius fled from Milan to Ravenna. Alaric went south and surrounded Rome.
At this time, famine and plague broke out in the city of Rome, and the Senate had to make peace with Alaric, handing over 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, and many other valuables and treasures. In 409, Alaric and the Huns besieged Rome for the second time and established a puppet emperor, and Honorius, who was huddled in Ravenna, retained the throne with the support of the Eastern Roman Empire.
In 410, the combined army of Alaric and the Huns besieged Rome for the third time and finally broke it. The coalition army looted the city for three days and returned with great gains, while Rome was hit with a devastating blow. In the same year, the Roman legions stationed in Britain withdrew, announcing the end of Roman rule over Britain.
For the next ten years, Honorius' co-emperor, Constantius III, became the military head of the empire, and the empire stabilized for a period of time. In 418, the Visigoth kingdom was established in the Gaul province of Aquitaine in the Western Roman Empire, with the capital Toulouse, the first barbarian kingdom established in the Roman Empire. In 423 Honorius died and Valentinian III ascended the throne, with his mother Gala Placidia as regent.
In 439, the Vandal-Aran Kingdom was established in the North African region of the Western Roman Empire, with the capital Carthage, and established its own navy, which kept attacking the Roman Empire from the sea. In 451, Attila, the leader of the Huns, led his troops to invade but was repelled by the famous imperial general Aetius and the Visigoth kingdom. Since then, Aetius has repeatedly repelled the barbarian attacks. In 454, Petronius Maximus colluded with his ministers to falsely accuse Aetius of treason, and Valentinian III believed it to be true and murdered Aetius in the palace. Subsequently, Maximus colluded with soldiers to murder Valentinian III and proclaimed himself emperor. In 455, the leader of the Vandals, Geiseric, and the Huns invaded Rome, where Maximus was killed and the city was sacked again.
So far, the Western Roman Empire has been unable to maintain, only lingering. The eight later emperors were all puppets, and the real power was in the hands of the barbarian generals. During the 16 years of Lichmel's reign, he abolished Avitus, Mayorion, Libius Severus, killed the emperor Antemius who was established by the Eastern Emperor and established Olibrius. When Gondolbert was in power, he erected Glisserius. In 475, Oreste made his son Romulus Augustus emperor. In 476, the barbarian general Odoac rebelled against Orest, deposed Romulus Augustus, declared his allegiance to the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno, and transferred the national emblem of the Western Roman Empire to the Eastern Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire fell. The demise of the Western Roman Empire marked the collapse of slavery in Western Europe, and a new page in Western European history has since opened.
Dynamic changes of the territory of the Roman Empire
barbarian kingdom
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many invading barbarians established ten kingdoms on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. In 489, the Ostrogoth leader Theodoric, supported by Zeno, crossed the Alps and invaded the Apennine Peninsula. In 493, Theodoric occupied Ravenna, killed Odoac, and became the governor of the Eastern Roman Empire in Italy. In fact, the Eastern Roman Empire did not have the ability to restrain Theodoric. Through a series of marriages, Theodoric formed alliances with other Germanic kingdoms. In 534, the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I destroyed the Vandal Kingdom. In 553, the Ostrogoth kingdom was destroyed. In 568, the Lombards crossed the Alps from the north, invaded the Apennine Peninsula, and established the Lombard Kingdom. In 572, Pavia was the capital. The Eastern Roman Empire retained only Ravenna and some fragmented territories in south-central Italy. In 751, Ravenna was occupied by the Lombards. In 774, the Frankish king Charlemagne overthrew the Lombard kingdom.
· Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) became the de facto successor to the Roman Empire. In 1453, Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was captured by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. In 1460, the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire in Moria was occupied by the Ottoman Empire. In 1461, the Ottoman Empire fell to the Trabzon Empire. So far, the Eastern Roman Empire has withdrawn from the stage of history forever.
Eastern Roman Empire (6th century under Justinian I)
Eastern Roman Empire (9th to 11th centuries)
· Charlemagne
In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans" in Rome, recognizing Charlemagne as the successor of the Roman Empire. In 843, the three sons of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious signed the Treaty of Verdun, splitting the empire into three parts.
Charlemagne
· Holy Roman Empire
There is actually no direct and legal relationship between the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Empire. Voltaire, a famous French Enlightenment thinker in the 18th century, once commented: "The Holy Roman Empire is neither holy, nor Rome, nor an empire."
In 962, Otto I, King of the East Frankish Kingdom, was crowned Emperor of the Roman Empire by Pope John XII in Rome, and the Holy Roman Empire recognized the Holy Roman Empire as the successor of the Western Roman Empire. Later, the Byzantine Empire also recognized this status. It was not until 1806 that Napoleon I ordered Franz II to give up the title of Holy Roman Emperor on August 6 and only retain the title of Emperor of Austria. The Holy Roman Empire disintegrated into the Austrian Empire, the Rhine Confederation, etc.
Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire flag
Russian Empire
In 1472, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III married Sophia, the niece of the last emperor of Eastern Rome, Constantine XI, claiming that she had inherited the orthodoxy of Eastern Rome, and the Principality of Moscow introduced the state religion of Eastern Rome into the Principality. To this day, Russia remains the center of the global Orthodox Church.
In 1547, Ivan IV was crowned emperor by the Orthodox Archbishop Macari, the first tsar of Russia. The word tsar comes from the Latin "Caesar", implying a pure blood. At the same time, in order to always remind the world that they are the legitimate successors of Eastern Rome, they called themselves the "Third Rome" and added the double-headed eagle symbol used by the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire to the Tsar's symbol.
